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恶性大脑中动脉梗死的病理生理及早期诊治研究进展

作者 / Author:王晓燕 张晓蕾 王运良

摘要 / Abstract:

恶性大脑中动脉梗死是一种致死性疾病,病死率高达80%。该病的病理生理特点是较大的核心区严重缺血,而周围半暗带相对较小。由于不可逆损害的快速进展,缺血区很快发生细胞毒性水肿,随后紧密连接损害引起血脑屏障破坏(BBB)和血管源性脑水肿,导致占位性脑肿胀。血管源性水肿在一至数天达高峰,对周围组织的机械压力引起中线移位和脑疝,最终压迫脑干和死亡。早期出现严重的神经症状,如偏瘫和凝视,而后出现高级皮层征象,如头痛、呕吐、视乳头水肿、意识下降等,可预测其加重过程。CT影像学超过50%的大脑中动脉(MCA)供血区发生低

关键词 / KeyWords:

恶性大脑中动脉梗死,缺血性组织损伤,半暗带,脑水肿,去骨瓣减压术

恶性大脑中动脉梗死的病理生理及早期诊治研究进展

王晓燕  张晓蕾  王运良
解放军第148中心医院神经内科,山东 淄博 255300
作者简介:王晓燕,Email:xiaoyan0709@126.com
通信作者:王运良,Email:wangyunliang81@163.com
【摘要】  恶性大脑中动脉梗死是一种致死性疾病,病死率高达80%。该病的病理生理特点是较大的核心区严重缺血,而周围半暗带相对较小。由于不可逆损害的快速进展,缺血区很快发生细胞毒性水肿,随后紧密连接损害引起血脑屏障破坏(BBB)和血管源性脑水肿,导致占位性脑肿胀。血管源性水肿在一至数天达高峰,对周围组织的机械压力引起中线移位和脑疝,最终压迫脑干和死亡。早期出现严重的神经症状,如偏瘫和凝视,而后出现高级皮层征象,如头痛、呕吐、视乳头水肿、意识下降等,可预测其加重过程。CT影像学超过50%的大脑中动脉(MCA)供血区发生低密度改变,梗死部位大、中线移位和弥散加权磁共振(DW-MRI)病变范围多是恶化过程的前兆。卒中后数小时正电子发射断层显像(PET)发现脑血流量低于临界值和不可逆组织损害预示恶性梗死进展和颅内压(ICP))增高,多模式神经监测发现组织氧张力降低。恶性MCA梗死的治疗包括限制占位性水肿扩展的一般措施,但这些方法并不是很有效,仅去骨瓣减压术(DHC)能成功降低升高的ICP和脑组织严重移位的影响。某些研究证实DHC可明显减少病死率和改善功能预后。无论患者年龄大小都必须尽早行DHC,但60岁以上患者造成严重残疾的可能性更高,应予以注意。
【关键词】  恶性大脑中动脉梗死;缺血性组织损伤;半暗带;脑水肿;去骨瓣减压术
【中图分类号】  R743.33    【文献标识码】  A    【文章编号】  1673-5110(2018)19-2098-06  DOI:10.12083/SYSJ.2018.19.458
Progress in pathophysiology and early diagnosis and treatment of malignant middle cerebral artery infarction
WANG XiaoyanZHANG XiaoleiWANG Yunliang
Department of Neurologythe 148th Central Hospital of PLAZibo 255300,China
Abstract】  Malignant middle cerebral artery infarction is a fatal disease with a mortality rate of up to 80%.The pathophysiological characteristics of the disease are severe ischemia in the larger core region,while the surrounding penumbra is relatively small.Due to the rapid progression of irreversible damage,cytotoxic edema occurs rapidly in the ischemic area,and subsequent tight junction damage causes blood-brain barrier destruction (BBB) and vasogenic cerebral edema,resulting in space-occupying brain swelling.Angiogenic edema reaches a peak in one to several days,and mechanical stress on the surrounding tissue causes midline shift and cerebral palsy,eventually compressing the brain stem and dying.Severe neurological symptoms such as hemiplegia and gaze occur early,and high-grade cortical signs such as headache,vomiting,papilledema,and decreased consciousness can predict the process of aggravation.CT imaging has a low-density change in the blood supply area of more than 50% of the middle cerebral artery (MCA).Large infarct size,midline shift,and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance (DW-MRI) lesions are precursors to the deterioration process.A few hours after stroke,positron emission tomography (PET) found that cerebral blood flow was below the critical value andirreversible tissue damage predicted an increase in malignant infarction progression and intracranial pressure (ICP).Multimodal neurological monitoring revealed a decrease in tissue oxygen tension.Treatment of malignant MCA infarction includes general measures to limit the expansion of space-occupying edema,but these methods are not very effective,and only decompressive craniectomy(DHC) can successfully reduce the effects of elevated ICP and severe brain tissue displacement.Some studies have demonstrated that DHC significantly reduces mortality and improves functional outcomes.DHC must be used as early as possible regardless of the patient's age,but patients over the age of 60 are more likely to have a severe disability and should be noted.
Key words】  Malignant middle cerebral artery infarction;Ischemic tissue injury;Penumbra;Cerebral edema;Decompressive craniectomy  
      大部分半球缺血可引起占位性脑水肿,导致神经系统功能迅速恶化。最严重的是影响MCA整个区域称为“恶性MCA梗死”,表现为严重的半球综合征,包括偏瘫、凝视和高级皮层征象,尔后出现头痛、呕吐、视乳头水肿和意识下降[1]。危及生命的水肿通常在卒中后一至数天发生,可引起中线移位、脑疝和死亡,第1周内高达80%。这一致死性疾病的年发病率为(10~20 )/10万人,女性更容易受影响。由于颅腔内空间变小,越年轻患者越受影响[2]
1  组织损伤的演变
      大脑对能量的需求较高,因此需经常维持足够的血液供应。如果正常脑血流低于一定水平,则发生可逆性功能障碍,在此水平上脑血流量(CBF)进一步降低则引起不可逆转的形态损害[3]。这种限制范围内的组织灌注值称为“缺血性半暗带”,特点是无形态学损伤,有功能恢复的可能,在某一时间窗内依赖剩余血流量提供局部血流重建。梗死急性期核心组织血流量低于能量代谢所需维持基本功能的阈值(低于发病前的20%)可引起脑损伤[4]。脑损伤是缺血引起能量衰竭的直接后果。能量依赖性离子泵的破坏导致细胞内钠和细胞外钾离子浓度增加,钙离子流入细胞内[5]。随着离子平衡紊乱,水进入细胞内导致渗透性膨胀,最终结果是细胞膜去极化,在严重缺血后数分钟内建立[6]
      在亚急性期,不可逆性损伤扩展到核心周围区域,脑血流降至发病前25%~35%,数小时后(通常约6 h)病变扩展到整个区域使血液供应严重减少[7]。缺血引起脑电和生物紊乱在不可逆细胞损伤过程中相互作用,梗死周围扩散抑制在触发和持续刺激细胞损伤的分子/生化级联过程中发挥重要的作用,并导致梗死灶扩大[8]。但对缺血性损伤起关键作用的生化和分子过程仍未在人类进行评估。
      半暗带概念的转换和缺血性损伤的进展使成像方法有一定困难,作为实验研究的大多数标记物需要有侵入性过程[9]。为遵循这些病理生理变化,需进行非侵入性成像方式,提供一些重要生理变量的定量图,包括局部脑血流(rCBF)、局部脑血容量和局部氧-葡萄糖的脑代谢率,但迄今为止,只有正电子发射断层扫描(PET)能够测定这些变量[10]。卒中早期PET研究证实,由于缺血引起脑部组织结构不同,PET研究将受影响的血管区域分为3类:缺血核心是血流<12 mL/(100 g·min),通常表现为坏死;半暗带区血流在12~22 mL/(100 g·min)之间,仍然有存活组织,但有不确定梗死或恢复的机会;低灌注区[>22 mL/(100 g·min)]并没有因血液供应不足而受损[11]。需记住的是脑组织随着时间改变而改变,半暗带程度及转化为梗死是一个动态过程,不可逆损伤从缺血的核心区向周边扩展[12]。最后,组织损伤的延迟期可能会持续数天甚至数周,在这种情况下,继发现象如血管源性水肿、炎症、程序性细胞死亡可导致组织损伤的进一步恶化[13]
2  脑水肿
      缺血性脑水肿分为2种不同的病理生理类型:早期细胞毒型,随后是晚期的血管源性水肿型。当厌氧代谢刺激导致脑组织渗透性增加,渗透作用引起细胞肿胀使血流降至正常30%时产生细胞毒性水肿[14]。在血流低于正常的20%,Na/K泵衰竭引起Na内流和离子梯度逐渐消失,导致膜去极化,细胞内渗透性增加和细胞肿胀[15]。在无血液流动的情况下,细胞肿胀以细胞外液量为代价,导致细胞外间隙收缩,但不影响净含水量的变化。流体的变化是由水的表观扩散系数(ADC)减少所引起,是扩散加权DW-MRI信号增强的原因[16]。然而,如果持续存在残留血流,水就会从血液中吸收而净组织含水量增加。血管闭塞时,含水量在缺血后数分钟开始增加,导致脑容量逐渐增大[17]
      随着组织坏死演变和基底膜退化,血脑屏障(BBB)破坏,4~6 h后血清蛋白开始从血液进入大脑引起血管源性水肿,进一步增强脑组织含水量[18]。对缺血性损伤BBB破坏的确切机制还不完全了解,虽然内皮细胞活跃的胞饮作用发生较早,但紧密连接破坏是主要特征[19]。此外,某些缺血诱导的介质包括基质金属蛋白酶、一氧化氮合酶、血管内皮生长因子和凝血酶也可能有一定影响[20]。梗死区重新建立再循环可导致水分通过破裂的血脑屏障引起血管源性水肿,并在缺血后一至数天达高峰,导致组织水分增加100%以上[21]。血管源性水肿与早期的细胞毒性水肿不同,是等渗性的,主要在细胞外间隙积累[22]。这逆转了细胞外间隙的缩小,并解释DW-MRI高信号。然而,随着组织总含水量增加,T2加权像的高信号可与正常脑组织相区别。
      缺血性脑卒中渐进性脑水肿对周围组织产生机械压力,在颅腔固定体积内也会对其他部分造成损害,如脉管系统和脑脊液空间[23]。一旦适应机制耗尽,ICP开始上升,影响脑血流,使自动调节失效和缺血恶化。升高的ICP可导致组织移位、中线移位和转移、脑疝等,从而导致脑干功能障碍[24]
3  影像学
      影像学在预测恶性梗死的发展中起关键作用,对早期治疗干预至关重要。
3.1  CT  在大多数机构中,CT是急性脑卒中的第一个诊断程序,对缺血和其他病因的鉴别至关重要。症状发作后最初几个小时,CT显示灰质的衰减变化导致灰白质分辨不清,基底节和岛带区别丧失[25]。随早期水肿进展,脑沟消失,并在白质形成低衰减[26]。这些早期低密度改变超过MCA的50%,预测恶性梗死的敏感性为61%,特异性为94%。梗死体积>220 mL及中线移位>3.9 mm可预测重度脑水肿和脑疝[27-28]。恶性病程的风险可以通过ASPECTS(阿尔伯塔卒中项目早期CT评分)评分估计,7分是确定进展为恶性梗死的截止评分,敏感性50%和特异性86%。灌注CT(PCT)研究发现,早期MCA 2/3以上供血区受累,恶性病程预测具有高敏感性(92%)和特异性(94%)[29]。CT血管造影可对缺血区的侧支循环程度进行分析,除NIHSS评分>18外,得分<2是恶性脑水肿独立预测因素[30]
3.2  MRI  MRI尤其弥散加权成像(DWI)比CT对缺血性病变的早期诊断更敏感。DWI病变体积145 mL是恶性梗死的预测因素(敏感性100%,特异性94%),但皮层体积的测定取决于DWI评估中ADC的降低阈值,与对侧健康组织相比,ADC截断值为80%,在症状发作6 h内体积>82 mL预测恶性梗死的特异性高(98%),但敏感性低(52%)。24 h后检查敏感性提高至79%,而特异性阳性预测值和阴性预测值保持不变[31-32]。脑萎缩检查能进一步增加DWI病变大小的阳性预测值。
3.3  血流和组织活力成像  脑血流的定量检查可用于确定缺血的临界阈值和发生梗死的大小,早期单光子发射计算机断层扫描(SPECT)与99m-锝-半胱氨酸预测恶性MCA梗死比CT变化或临床症状更准确[33]。PET 11C氟马西尼(FMZ)可用于评估rCBF(早期分布)和不可逆的神经元损伤(减少示踪剂积累)。早期PET检查显示,恶性病程(进行性水肿形成伴中线移位)与良性的病人相比,缺血核心(平均144.5 vs 62.2 mL)和不可逆损伤组织(157.9 vs 47.0 mL)的体积更大[34]。恶性组缺血核心的平均脑血流值明显降低,缺血半暗带体积小于良性组[35]。伴恶性病程的病人症状发作后平均52 h,脑灌注压降至<50 mmHg(1 mmHg=0.133 kPa),随后组织氧分压下降和谷氨酸增加,提示继发性缺血导致梗死扩张[36]。这些发现表明PET研究可用预测恶性梗死的进展。
      PET和SPECT研究有助于确定组织存活的界限并阐明导致空间占位性梗死的病理生理变化,但不适用临床选择有创治疗的患者[37]。因此,选择手术治疗的患者是基于CT(MCA区梗死>50%,ASPECT 7分或以下,PCT的MCA区缺损2/3)或MRI-DWI 6 h内总损伤体积>145 mL或皮质损害体积>82 mL[38]
4  治疗
4.1  保守治疗  最近公布了针对恶性MCA梗死患者的治疗指南,一般的保守治疗中只有低温治疗显示某些有益效果,局部脑缺血动物模型发现低温减低缺血后高灌注,延缓缺血后低灌注、血脑屏障破坏、脑水肿及神经损伤体积[39]。在恶性MCA梗死患者,核心温度维持在33 ℃,48~72 h病死率降低到44%,而3个月时Barthel指数为70[40]。与去骨瓣减压术(DHC)相比,低温治疗的效果较差,低温治疗的病死率为47%,而DHC为12%[41]。低温治疗联合去骨瓣可能会有额外的益处,如6个月后有轻微改善,无额外不良反应等,但对照研究仍在试验[42-43]
      渗透疗法用于减轻脑水肿,减少组织转移,但研究发现,高渗盐溶液、甘露醇和甘油均有效,至少暂时缓解颅内压力,但不能显著改善预后[44]。类固醇不能改善功能预后或减少病死率,此外,渗透疗法可利于缩短手术干预时间[45]
4.2  去骨瓣减压术  由于恶性梗死引起的空间占位性水肿,脑组织向对侧(中线移位)和向后颅窝移位(小脑幕切迹疝),最终导致脑干压迫和死亡[46]。只有通过DHC开创额外空间,才能使水肿的大脑扩展减轻症状。在首次描述该手术的效果后,大量病例报告和病例系列研究显示明显的益处,特别是改善恶性梗死患者的生存率[47]。某些前瞻性随机试验发现,单独手术并不能显著改善临床结果,综合分析证实DHC是一种拯救生命的措施,存活率从29%增加到78%,但未发现幸存者功能改善[48]。对60岁以上患者,病死率从对照组的70%下降到DHC的33%,存活者的神经功能状况不佳。但与预期结果相反,优势半球DHC与更糟糕的结果没有关联[49]。重复结果显示,症状出现后24 h内早期DHC显著降低病死率并改善卒中后6和12个月结果。卒中后48 h进行DHC可能对病死率或临床结果不会产生有益影响[50]。另外,去骨瓣大小很重要,多数研究推荐DHC直径至少12 cm。术前和术后PCT的血流动力学参数与病死率有关,而DHC后PCT参数的改善与预后良好相关[51]。最近的Meta分析证实了先前的研究结果,DHC显著降低病死率并改善18~80岁患者恶性梗死的功能预后,尽管主要残疾的比例未显著增加,尤其老年幸存者[52]。因此,无论患者的年龄如何,建议使用DHC改善恶性梗死后的生存率,但对60岁以上的患者应考虑病人和家庭的愿望,因出现严重残疾的可能性相当高[53]。改进的成像程序——CT灌注和血管成像、PW和DW-MRI、PET等对脑卒中早期发展为恶性梗死的选择性病人会有帮助,也特别受益于早期DHC,但对DHC的安全性和有效性需要大样本随机对照临床试验进一步证实[54-55]
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(收稿2018-04-26  修回2018-07-20)
本文责编:夏保军
本文引用信息:王晓燕,张晓蕾,王运良.恶性大脑中动脉梗死的病理生理及早期诊治研究进展[J].中国实用神经疾病杂志,2018,21(19):2098-2103.DOI:10.12083/SYSJ.2018.19.458
Reference information:WANG Xiaoyan,ZHANG Xiaolei,WANG Yunliang.Progress in pathophysiology and early diagnosis and treatment of malignant middle cerebral artery infarction[J].Chinese Journal of Practical Nervous Diseases,2018,21(19):2098-2103.DOI:10.12083/SYSJ.2018.19.458
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